“What proportion of the world’s unhappiness is traceable to ill-health due to poor diet would be impossible to prove and idle to speculate upon, but the writer is convinced, from experience both with humans and experimental animals, that few if any have naturally ‘cantankerous’ dispositions, being good-natured when well fed and the opposite when malnourished or in poor health”—Bogert, Nutrition and Physical Fitness.
MENU PLANNING, as such, is a very important phase of subsistence; but because of its interrelationship with other problems of mess management, its importance assumes a nebulous state in comparison with the more tangible problems of purchase, storage, issue, and control of costs. In reality, however, all initial endeavor in subsistence planning should lead to the development of the best menu possible under the present ration law. But, important as it is, menu planning is not so complex that the usual difficulties encountered cannot be overcome with care and reasonable understanding.
As this paper is being written, the Federal Government is beginning a study of methods for improving the physical wellbeing of those millions of men who may some day constitute the bulk of our fighting forces. It may be of interest to state that in the opinion of one authority, some 45,000,000 of our people are getting along on less than a satisfactory diet. “But, what is a satisfactory diet?” you may ask.
A satisfactory diet, if we may sum up the opinions of the better dietary experts, may be classified as either adequate or optimal. The former maintains body weight and keeps the body in a moderately satisfactory state of health, while the latter will promote maximum growth and a high degree of vitality and resistance to disease. Under our present system of subsistence little difficulty should be experienced in maintaining an adequate diet. However, to produce the optimal diet—and that should be our goal in a service composed of young men—we must concern ourselves, not only with those staples which bring about the feeling of being “well-fed,” but in addition include the so-called protective foods. Briefly, protective foods are those which benefit health, such as milk, leafy vegetables, fruits and whole grains; and it is from foods of this nature that we get many of the necessary vitamins, minerals such as calcium and iron, and roughage. However, this is in no sense a paper on nutrition. Neither is it an attempt to improve or even encroach upon the much discussed field of medical subsistence. Rather it is an attempt to bring to subsistence officers and their subordinates a realization of their problems hopefully expressed in terms readily understandable, without infringing upon the prerogatives of the technical-minded.
Mass feeding in a military organization presents many problems entirely different from those confronting the civilian dietician, caterer, or restaurateur. And, if the organization is a mobile one such as ours, there is an additional complication—the availability of an adequate variety of foodstuffs at all times. Then, too, there is that rather inflexible element, the element of the limit of cost. Ours is a rather generous government in providing for the needs of enlisted personnel, but generous or not, our government rightly expects us to provide the maximum in quantity, quality, and variety at a minimum cost.
In planning menus the commissary officer may approach the problem in two ways. Menus may be based on food items on board and readily available, or they may be planned well ahead and orders placed with contractors accordingly. Obviously, the latter approach is preferable since it permits of more latitude in the selection of items and a better control of costs. Unfortunately, however, this latter method is not always feasible. Customarily, in the naval service, weekly menus are prepared by the commissary steward and presented to the supply officer or commissary officer for approval. This procedure is proper as it gives the commissary steward an opportunity to display his knowledge and at the same time exercise his initiative and imagination. The weakness of the scheme rears its ugly head only when the commissary officer fails to assure himself that the best job possible has been done.
Personal idiosyncrasies have a tendency to display their wares in many phases of menu planning and food preparation. For this reason the supervisory officer of any mess should bear in mind that it is just as important to avoid frills as it is to avoid monotony. Whims and fads, while acceptable to the few, do not take the place of good and wholesome food demanded by the many. Moreover, while we are concerned with the calorific value of foods, it must be borne in mind that men, especially younger men, relish food to which they have been accustomed. But, in this respect, the Navy differs noticeably from the Army. At many Army posts, the complement is recruited from the immediate vicinity and some attempt is made to keep these men near their homes throughout their enlistment, and under the circumstances some consideration may be given to their localized tastes. Such a condition is impossible in our service, with the Georgia boy wanting black-eyed peas, and the one from Roxbury demanding pie for breakfast.
The custom of serving the heaviest meal at noon each day in general messes on board ship is steeped in antiquity, and probably came to us from the Greeks— Jason may have ordered it on the Argo when he sailed in search of the Golden Fleece, as the darkness set in quite early in the slave pits and the mess cooks found it difficult to serve an evening meal with any degree of safety. The practice is difficult to defend from a modern dietary point of view, although the theory has been that heavy evening meals are distressing to say the least. Not only do men have a tendency to overeat at noon and thereby slow down their mental and physical productive processes during the afternoon work period; but, in consequence thereof, they must be satisfied with a comparatively light meal in the evening, even though 14 hours will elapse before breakfast on the following morning. It speaks well for the excellent physical condition of the enlisted man that his digestive apparatus adjusts itself so well to these periods of feast and famine. Or does it? When the ship is in port, and the men are granted liberty prior to the evening meal, a complete and satisfying noon meal is partially justifiable on the grounds that every man is legally entitled to a daily ration. However, there seems to be little argument in favor of the practice at sea.
But what about the subsistence officer who plans such excellent meals that the men refuse to leave the ship on liberty until after the evening meal? Not so long ago the writer was approached by a supply officer of a ship in the same force, and this supply officer stated that he was confronted with a very embarrassing situation. It seems that his commanding officer had called him in that morning and directed him to feed less well as the men were staying aboard until after the evening meal, and, as a result, were getting insufficient recreation on shore. It was a popular liberty port. Naturally, anyone should be sympathetic towards a brother officer whose best efforts bear fruit of questionable worth, but there has always remained a distressing suspicion that someone, sometime, somewhere, had been bitten by that rare, though seldom fatal, bug of the genus coccus-ego, for which no effective serum has been discovered.
In planning the weekly menus, each day should be considered separately and as a whole. Next, decide which is to be the heavy meal of the day and plan it accordingly, using the two remaining meals merely as a supplement thereto in order to provide a well-balanced diet. Attractive meals stimulate the flow of digestive juices and thereby aid in digestion, so variety in color, form, and arrangement of foods is essential. The proverbial horse that was led to water and would not drink is in the same boat with the man who looks upon unattractive food and refuses to eat it. It is well to remember, also, that the smaller the meal, the more nutritious should be the ingredients. And from both a physiological and psychological point of view, meat is always a desired item in the diet of working men.
Variety is less important in breakfast than in other meals, but this does not mean that the foodstuffs used should be less appetizing. Important, too, is the fact that hot foods for breakfast should be hot when served. Fruit in some form should be included in every breakfast menu. Fruits are rich in needed vitamins, appetizing, and beneficial for their laxative effect. Frequent use of cereals, particularly the whole grain cereals, is recommended. Aside from their food value, cereals are excellent for their roughage effect, and as a medium for the introduction of milk in the diet. The noon meal, if it is the heavy meal of the day, should contain the major portion of the carbohydrates and heavier and fatter meats for the day—potatoes, and such meats as veal, pork, and the pot roasts. To introduce the meal, a cream soup or chowder is excellent and beneficial. To offset the ill-effects of such a meal it should be climaxed with an oily salad and a sweet dessert, both of these having high satiety value and requiring little digestive effort. And right here is offered the constructive suggestion that the soda fountain remain closed for business until after the noon meal has been served. This suggestion will be concurred in by the majority of medical and supply officers. Soda fountain delicacies are cooling on a hot day, but they raise havoc with appetites; and who can blame a savory roast or aromatic ham for complaining about playing second fiddle to a couple of ice cream cones and a marshmallow sundae smothered with nuts and maraschinos. Memory is a treacherous thing, but the thought persists that prior to the advent of the soda fountain on board ship, food poisoning was a rarity.
The evening meal on board ship presents more of a problem than the other two meals for several reasons. In the first place, if the noon meal is comparatively expensive, there is the natural tendency to curtail costs by serving something simple and inexpensive for supper. Oftentimes this results in an overabundance of one main dish with few accessories. Another fairly prevalent fault is the custom of serving fried foods which, as a general rule, are hard to digest. Moreover, it is seldom that one finds such items as clear soup, chicken, or steak served at supper time in general messes. Clear soups are inexpensive, tasty, and promote the flow of gastric juices. All of this should lead us to the thought that there should be a better balance between the noonday meal and the evening meal, with a dimunition of the “picnic” features of the latter.
Aside from the problem of supplying the proper foods for the maintenance of health and the promotion of growth and physical endeavor, there are a number of factors of a practical nature to be considered in the initial stages of menu planning; among the more important are the following:
(a) The availability of an adequate variety of foodstuffs.
(b) The selection of foods—canned versus fresh, etc.
(c) The itinerary of the ship, and climatic conditions.
(d) The character of work to be performed by the crew.
(e) The work load—cooks and bakers.
(f) The use of left-overs.
(g) The co-ordination of range tops and oven spaces.
To maintain an adequate variety of foodstuffs on board at all times, the commissary officer’s principal concern is with those perishable items obtainable through purchase or on order against existing contracts. These are the items which give zest to the menu and added assurance of an optimal diet. The more staple items, such as canned goods and refrigerated products, should be maintained at as high a level as existing replenishment schedules and storage spaces will permit.
In ordering perishable items such as fresh fruits, fresh vegetables, and fresh milk, the commissary officer must take into consideration the keeping qualities of these items under conditions of storage existing on board. For example, fresh milk may be frozen and kept fresh for some time, but such practice is not recommended as it is difficult to reconstruct in its former state when thawed. However, fresh milk can be carried without spoilage for several weeks if the containers are absolutely sterile and a temperature of 37-38°F. is maintained without variation. Costs are important too, and for this reason it is seldom that fresh fruits and fresh vegetables should be purchased out of season. The question of whether to use fresh or canned fruits and vegetables is a matter of cost and availability. Fresh items are preferable of course, and, as a general rule, should be used extensively at every opportunity, especially in port. Perhaps, at this point, it might be well to introduce certain “do’s and don’ts,” which, while not at all inclusive, will be found helpful in raising the standards of menus.
(a) Plan menus so that fresh berries, melons, cherries, asparagus, peas, etc., can be used up within three or four days after receipt. These items are poor keepers in a fresh state even under shipboard refrigeration.
(b) Take into consideration the difficulties in preparing certain fresh foodstuffs for cooking; items such as fresh peas in pod, strawberries, and fresh string beans. Time required for preparation may preclude the use of these items on occasion.
(c) Avoid such items as artichokes and fresh spinach in large messes. Not only are these items difficult to prepare, but there is considerable waste in the former and too much shrinkage in the latter.
(d) Use liberally of green onions, cucumbers, celery, radishes, fresh tomatoes, and lettuce, in salads and otherwise. These items are less perishable than many of the other fresh foods, and they are an excellent source of minerals, vitamins, and roughage. Cole slaw is excellent too if well seasoned and creamy.
(e) When serving such items as fresh grapes and fresh cherries, put them on the tables as extras and not in lieu of an acceptable dessert.
(f) Use caution in serving dried beef, canned tongue, beets, okra, stuffed green peppers, and turnips. Granting that the use of these items adds to the variety, experience has shown that they are not popular with the majority of men.
(g) Prepare steaks from the better cuts of meat, and from identical cuts for any particular meal. Uniformity of food is just as important as uniform clothing or uniform customs in any naval or military organization. By saving the loins from each hind quarter of beef it is possible to give each man a tenderloin or porterhouse steak several times each month. In order to do this, stock wholesale cuts for sale to officers’ messes, and prepare roasts and other meat dishes from the other cuts of beef. The chuck makes an acceptable roast, and is by far the most nutritious part of the beef.
(h) Serve various kinds of bread, such as graham, whole wheat, and rye, for a welcome change from the ever-present white loaf. An assortment of bread adds to the meal. Toast is beneficial and should be served when opportunity offers.
(i) Serve butter at every meal. The present allowance is liberal if careful supervision is exercised. The method of serving butter has much to do with the quantity used or wasted. The average commercial restaurant serving of butter runs 64 cuts to the pound. Issue at this rate would take less than one-half of the daily allowance.
(j) The practice of serving similar items twice on the same day should be avoided at all times. For example, never serve a roast of veal at noon and veal stew for supper. If the poorer cuts of veal cannot be used in a roast, put them back under refrigeration, and use them a day or so later for stew or pot pie.
(k) When purchasing apples, order the firm juicy apples for serving fresh, and the less expensive apples for cooking.
(/) When purchasing ice cream in brick form, order seven cuts to the quart as an equitable serving.
(m) Purchase and use salt pork to flavor baked beans, spinach, etc. Salt pork creates a better flavor and is more economical than bacon of any quality.
(n) When serving fish, either baked or fried, garnish with slices of lemon, and serve extra slices of lemon and a tasty tartar sauce. Many complaints about fish as a food may be traced to a lack of these extras.
(o) Use plenty of parsley for flavor and decorative effect. This is a worth-while item, with cost quite negligible.
(p) A free use of such items as mustard, pickles, cheese, spices, and seasonings add to the joy of eating, and their cost is nominal.
(q) Plan on using at least one raw food each day, one which requires chewing, and one containing roughage.
(r) Provided their cost is not prohibitive, the following items add much to the diet: tomato juice, oysters, clams, mushrooms, and gelatin. Tomato juice is appetizing and an excellent source of vitamins. Gelatin, if served with milk, is a good dessert, but it is better as a medium for making fruit and vegetable salads.
(s)Use ham bones and beef bones in soup stock. Bones provide a desirable flavor, and in the cooking process some calcium is extracted.
(t) Avoid stereotype menus week after week. Almanacs and calendars are available in other forms.
The itinerary of the ship and the climatic conditions to be encountered should have much to do with the character of food served. Cooler climates create a need for heavier meals of proteins and carbohydrates—meats, potatoes, beans, etc., as there is a greater body demand for heat and energy foods. Warmer climates, on the other hand, should see a decided change in the menu, with less of the fatty meats, particularly pork, a greater use of fish and fowl, and more salads and fresh fruits. Cold drinks, such as lemonade, iced tea and iced coffee are desirable.
The subsistence officer who is more than casually interested in the general mess will endeavor to keep abreast of ship schedules and plan meals accordingly. When the men are engaged in work requiring more than the usual routine effort, meals should be such as to meet this extra demand. And, by the same token, when men are working late at night handling stores or ammunition, sandwiches and coffee may be served without any risk of social error.
In most discussions pertaining to the dietary, the cooks and bakers are the forgotten men. But their place in the general scheme cannot be ignored, and it is the wise commissary officer who is able to plan a well-balanced diet and at the same time arrange a balanced work load for the cooks and bakers. Time is a factor in food preparation, and many foodstuffs cannot be prepared too far in advance or else wholesomeness and palatability diminish, and the health of the crew is jeopardized by serving food of questionable quality. Oftentimes, a commissary officer desires to serve hot biscuits, pie, and some form of cake on the same day, but just as often it develops that the capacity of the bake shop will not permit it. Such a condition, of course, reflects itself in the menu, but it can be overcome to some extent by careful planning. The same is true of the productive capacity of the galley. And important, too, in the galley, is the co-ordination of range tops and oven spaces. It is uneconomical to fail to take advantage of all available cooking heat, and meals that require full use of galley coppers and ranges at the same time are seldom necessary.
As stated in the beginning, this is in no sense a treatise on nutrition. In a rather general way, the endeavor has been to outline some of the practical aspects of menu planning. Constructing a diet is a matter of supplying sufficient calories, vitamins, proteins, mineral salts, etc., on the one hand, and, on the other, the translation of these requirements into terms of wholesome and attractive food, subject to such limits of cost as may be imposed. The first is the application of scientific knowledge, and this is why all menus should be scrutinized closely by the medical officer. The second demands of commissary officers the ability to evaluate resources and conditions, to the end that standards of general messes will continue to improve, and incidents, such as the following, will be a rarity.
A certain Admiral, while making an inspection of one of the ships in his force, stopped before a grizzled old seaman and inquired as to the character of food served him.
“Oh! It’s all right, sir, what there is of it,” answered the man.
“But, don’t you get enough?” queried the surprised flag officer.
“Sure, such as it is,” answered the seaman.
All psychologists agree that physical condition has a powerful effect on psychological susceptibility. A crowd of men that are tired, hungry, sick, thirsty, or who have lost sleep, are much more susceptible to physic suggestion than the same men when in normal health and comfort. With a crowd of men who are worn out, sick, exhausted, the slightest suggestion is liable to produce a quick and most profound effect. What the effect will be depends on the suggestion. This is the basis for Soidt’s statement. “The soldier before dinner, and the soldier after dinner, are two entirely different beings.”—Eltinge, Psychology of War.