Introductory Remarks.
I have been requested by the committee to prepare a paper on the navigation of the China seas. I have consented to do so, notwithstanding the fact that it must necessarily be a dry subject to all, except those who are familiar with the intricate and dangerous navigation of its waters.
A paper of this kind must of necessity abound with names of Eastern origin, entirely unknown and without significance to those unacquainted with the language, or localities.
The discussion of winds, weather, and routes, to which this paper must be confined, will be of little interest except to the navigator, and, unless he is familiar with the various routes, he will find it difficult to follow me through the devious courses necessary to take in traversing this sea against an adverse monsoon.
I shall make no excuse for occupying your time this evening in discussing so dry a subject. If not particularly entertaining, it is of great importance to all who have the responsibility of conducting our ships through those dangerous waters.
The main routes are becoming pretty well known, but there are many localities to which vessels are frequently obliged to resort, from stress of weather or other causes, of which we know little or nothing, and to add to the difficulties and dangers of navigation, our charts are very imperfect, a large portion of the Eastern seas being but partially known, and imperfectly surveyed.
My experience in this region is confined to thirty-five trips up and down, or across, the China sea. During this time I may have gained some information that will be of service to those who have not been over the ground, or whose experience has been less than mine.
It will be seen that, in numerous instances, ray conclusions differ from standard authorities, and may provoke discussion which will tend to increase our knowledge of one of the least known and most frequented of the great ocean routes of the world.
In preparing this paper I am indebted to
The China Sea Directory, British Admiralty;
The North Pacific Directory, Findlay;
Navigation of the Pacific Ocean, Becher; the information thus obtained being supplemented by personal recollections and frequent reference to my Remark books.
Navigation of the China Seas.
The prevailing winds in the China sea and its approaches, exert a more marked and direct influence on its navigation than over any other of the great ocean highways.
This influence is felt to such an extent that entirely different routes have to be adopted, and in some cases it has been found advisable to sail around the entire region embraced within the limits of the China sea in order to reach port against an adverse monsoon.
Before the days of clipper ships it was customary to so plan the voyage that a fair monsoon would be carried both ways. An attempt to beat up the China sea against the N.E. monsoon would have been considered a feat worthy of the Flying Dutchman.
The native trading junks made but one voyage a year, always going with a fair monsoon, never dreaming of the possibility of beating against it. So firmly were the Chinese merchants impressed with the impracticability of making a passage safely against the monsoon, that for years after clipper ships began to ply on their coasts they would not ship by them, preferring—as they supposed—the safer means of transport by junks, as they waited for a fair wind.
For nearly two centuries the Dutch at Desima, were permitted to receive and despatch one ship a year, and her voyage was so timed as to meet a favorable monsoon both ways.
The first vessels to regularly beat up the sea, were the opium clippers, generally brigs or schooners, well manned and designed to attain the greatest possible speed.
Monsoons of the Java Sea.
The strait of Sunda, through which passes a large proportion of the enormous commerce entering the China sea, lies in the region of the S.E. and N.W. monsoons; the former prevails from May to October, the latter from November to March, extending over the Java sea, and through the straits of Banka, Gaspar, and Carimata. The times of change and direction in the straits are uncertain, and calms are frequent at all times during the S.W. monsoon. The winds in Banka strait usually follow the coast-line, subject to slight variation from land and sea breezes.
Monsoons of the China Sea.
The S.W. monsoon commences in the China sea from the middle to the latter part of April, and continues until about the middle of October. It usually sets in earlier in the Gulf of Siam and Tong King than in the open sea, or on the coasts of China, Palawan, and Luzon, and continues longer in the southern than in the northern parts, southerly winds frequently prevailing about Singapore after the N.E. monsoon has set in farther north.
The S.W. monsoon is usually light and unsteady during the first month, attaining its full strength during June, July, and August, when it is most steady. S.E. winds are not uncommon, however, at any time during this monsoon.
Heavy rain squalls and cloudy weather may be expected in June, July, and August. White squalls are occasionally met with during the month of May, in the vicinity of the Gulf of Siam, and black squalls at any time during the S.W. monsoon.
These squalls, owing to their violence, and the suddenness of their appearance, are among the greatest dangers of this locality, and can be guarded against only by the strictest vigilance. Caution is unnecessary to those who are familiar with them, but I wish to impress upon those who are not the vital importance of employing the brief interval of warning in preparing to meet it, if under sail, by leaving as little canvas as possible exposed.
They frequently appear during clear, pleasant weather, when least expected, a few moments' warning being given by the rapid rising of a dense cloud.
The first experience of an officer with one of these dangerous blasts is liable to result in serious loss of sails and spars—the inevitable result of a little delay to see what it is going to amount to. With the exception of the squalls mentioned, heavy gales are rare in the gulf. Moderate gales are frequently met with on the east coast.
Land and sea breezes prevail near the coast, from Siam to the Gulf of Tong King, during the S.W. monsoon. To the northward of Hong Kong this monsoon cannot be said to fairly set in before May, and even then it is frequently light and variable, N.E. and S.E. winds blowing for days at a time between Hong Kong, Formosa, and the Loo Choo Islands. It is usually light near the west coast of Formosa, being greatly modified by the high land of the island. They are stronger in mid-channel and near the China coast, but are liable to alternate with N.E. winds at any time.
Dense fogs, with misty, rainy weather, are of frequent occurrence in June, July, and August, greatly increasing the dangers of navigation. I have frequently observed, however, that objects are visible at considerable distances close in shore when an impenetrable fog prevailed at sea. It is not an unusual occurrence for a steamer to make the trip between Hong Kong and Turnabout Island without seeing land.
In the latter part of May, 1877, the "City of Peking" left Hong Kong and steamed up the coast, through the Formosa strait, and across the sea to the Linschoten islands without seeing land or lights. The black northeaster is a storm peculiar to the region about the northern entrance of Formosa straits. We encountered one in May, 1877, so remarkable in some of its features that I consider it worthy of notice here.
We were sixty miles east of Turnabout Island, at noon, with a moderate breeze from S.W., thick, hazy weather, barometer steady at 29.89, thermometer 80°. A dense black bank was visible to the northward. The S.W. wind died away suddenly at 2.55 P. M.; the black bank, having nearly reached the zenith, entirely obscured the northern heavens. Five minutes later the wind came out from N.E. in a furious squall, with torrents of rain, and incessant thunder and lightning; the entire forces of the heavens were seemingly concentrated above and around the ship. The darkness was so great for a few minutes, that it was exceedingly difficult to distinguish points of the compass in the binnacle, and the mist was so dense that neither bow nor stern could be seen from the bridge. The compasses were perceptibly affected previous to and for a few minutes after the storm burst upon us. The barometer commenced to rise immediately, and the thermometer fell 10° in as many minutes. At midnight we had a strong wind from N.E. by N., with thick, rainy weather, barometer 30.02, thermometer 67°.
North East Monsoon.
The N.E. monsoon in the northern part of the China sea, usually sets in about the latter part of September, and is blowing steadily in November, increasing in strength during the months of December and January, accompanied with cloudy, rainy weather, frequent gales and heavy seas alternating with short intervals of fine weather.
The region from the north end of Formosa to the coast of Japan, has generally been considered within the limits of the monsoons.
It is an undoubted fact that the prevailing winds are from the northward during the prevalence of the N.E. monsoon, but I have frequently found it blowing from other quarters for days at a time.
Winds on the Coast of Japan
The coast of Japan from Cape Satano to the Gulf of Yedo has been mentioned also as within the limits of the monsoons. From my experience of this locality I would assign it to the region of variable winds.
I have frequently observed a great similarity in the winds and weather on this coast, and that in the same latitudes on the east coast of the United States. The directions for the barometer on the latter coast apply quite as well to the southern part of Japan.
Winds in the Yellow Sea and Gulf of Pechili.
The prevailing winds in the Yellow Sea and Gulf of Pechili are northerly and N.W. during the winter months, with frequent gales from those quarters; S.W. and S.E. winds prevailing during the summer.
The N.E. monsoon in the middle and southern part of the China Sea
The N.E. monsoon usually sets in a week or two later in the vicinity of Hong Kong than farther to the northward, and in the southern part of the sea variable winds may be expected until early in November.
December and January are stormy months over the whole China sea. The winds moderate in February, and are frequently light and variable in March.
The N.E. monsoon frequently sets in with a fresh gale, and blows for a week or ten days without intermission, accompanied with thick, rainy weather, heavy seas, and strong currents.
The barometer usually gives sufficient warning, particularly in the northern portions of the sea. Numerous instances have been related however of these "monsoon bursts" having been precipitated upon the unfortunate mariner unheralded by the barometer or other atmospheric indications. Serious damage to shipping is the natural result, as many vessels will be caught in exposed positions, or, from various causes, be unprepared for a lengthened struggle with the elements.
Winds on the Coast of Luzon.
Land and sea breezes prevail on the coast of Luzon in March and April, with fine weather. The rainy season on the west coast is from May to October, while on the east coast it is the dry season.
Northerly winds set in about the middle of October bringing the wet season on the east coast, with fine weather on the west.
Variable winds may be said to prevail during the N.E. monsoon.
Northerly and N.E. winds are the rule, but strong, steady breezes from the westward are of frequent occurrence.
Winds on the Palawan Coast.
Local influences are such on the coast of Palawan that it is difficult to tell when the monsoons set in or end. From about December to April N.E. and easterly winds prevail. Land and sea breezes are usually found near the coast in May and June—the finest months in the year.
S.W. and westerly winds with unsettled weather may be expected in July, and August. Short intervals of tine weather being followed frequently by heavy S.W. squalls.
W.S.W. winds prevail in September, and October, usually blowing strongly with dark, cloudy weather and frequent squalls. Variable winds may be expected in November, and heavy gales are frequent.
Typhoons.
The typhoons of the China sea are cyclonic gales, ranging over the Philippine islands, Bashee channel, east coast of Formosa, the Japan islands, and a considerable portion of the North Pacific ocean.
It is said they do not extend into the Formosa channel, and as we have the record of but two at Amoy, it would seem that their appearance in that locality was extremely rare at least.
The Amoy typhoons occurred in August 1864, within a few days of each other—one traveling to the northward and westward, the other to the southward and westward; both evidently having entered the China sea in the vicinity of the Bashee channel. They visit Shanghai and the Chusan islands at long intervals.
These destructive hurricanes seem to have their origin in the region of the Eastern archipelago, Borneo, and the Philippine islands.
Their general track is to the westward, to the coast of China, or, recurving, they take the general direction of the Japan stream to the east coast of Formosa, the Loo Choo and Linschoten islands, the coast of Japan and the Pacific ocean.
Our data are not sufficient to enable us to lay down absolute rules for determining the track of these dangerous storms, and it is more than probable that their ultimate course is the result of local influences after they have started on their career.
Our present knowledge of the tracks of these storms may be given as follows.
1st. That after their conception they take a westerly direction toward the coast of China, or, recurving, sweep off in the direction of Japan and the Pacific Ocean.
2nd. That a typhoon seldom recurves after entering the China sea, but usually in the region to the eastward of the Philippines.
3d. That if a typhoon strikes the China coast, with a westerly course, it usually goes inland, where its track is lost, seldom recurving to appear again in the China sea.
The typhoon season is from May to December, but they more frequently occur, and are most violent, during the months of June, July, and August. They are not often met in May, nor in December, and when they do occur in those months, are not usually as violent as those from June to August.
Much confusion has resulted from attempts to reconcile the movements of some of the gales occurring about the change of monsoon in October or November with the general rules laid down for typhoons, when they are not typhoons at all, but simply monsoon bursts, or other gales having an entirely different origin and governing principle.
Typhoon Warnings.
The barometer gives the most reliable information of the approach of one of these dangerous tempests, or, in fact, of any great atmospheric disturbance. There are usually other indications, but without the aid of the barometer they might pass unnoticed. I recollect a case in point which taught me to respect the marine barometer. We had been becalmed all day just to the northward of Madagascar; the sea was as smooth as a mill pond, and not a cloud to be seen. The heat was intense and exceedingly oppressive. The atmosphere seemed lacking in some vital element, the least exertion being attended with a shortness of breath.
The crew went about their duties in a listless, half sullen manner, and the officers were exceedingly irritable and exacting. Animals that had the run of the decks were restless, and those that had been petted by members of the crew sought out their friends and followed them about as though for protection.
We thought nothing of all this at the time, attributing it to the usual enervating effects of a calm in the tropics.
A light breeze sprung up as the sun went down, filling the sails and giving us good steerage way. It was one of the most beautiful evenings I ever saw, the stars shone with unusual brilliancy in the cloudless sky, and although there was no moon, everything could be distinctly seen about the decks and aloft.
The only peculiarity remarked at this time was that the slightest noise attracted attention, and ordinary conversation was audible from one end of the ship to the other. At 8 o'clock the Captain ordered the light sails in, and the yards sent down; the order was executed, but there were many grave conjectures among the crew as to the commander's mental condition.
Sail was reduced until the ship was under close reefed topsails and storm staysails, everything securely lashed about the decks, hatches battened down, and every preparation made for a gale. There was a moderate breeze at midnight, and apparently settled weather. At 4 A. M. a moderate gale, and at 8 A. M. a hurricane ! the ship under bare poles.
The captain by closely observing the barometer during the day and evening was perfectly aware of the approaching storm, and while the rest of us were discussing the doubtful policy of shortening sail in fine weather and a fair wind, he was deliberately preparing his ship to meet it.
In the tropical portion of the China sea the barometer is not always reliable in indicating local changes, and apparent anomalies in its action are frequently noticed, tending to destroy the confidence of the navigator in one of his most useful instruments. If not very sensitive to unimportant local changes, it will invariably indicate great atmospheric disturbances such as typhoons.
Complaints have been made that the warning is at times very short When we consider the fact that the storm is advancing two hundred miles, or more, in twenty-four hours, it may be easily conceived that, under certain conditions, the atmospheric disturbance would not be very far in advance of the actual storm.
As a matter of fact, forty-eight hours is not an unusual warning in the China sea. Twenty-four hours is the rule, and less than twelve hours is rarely known.
No vessel should encounter a typhoon at sea, if it is possible to avoid it. If there are no harbors available, sea room should be gained while able to carry sail; the second consideration being to get as far from the vortex as practicable. It will frequently happen that in accomplishing one object the other will be attained.
If a typhoon is encountered in the act of recurving it may be very difficult to determine which way it is moving. The only thing to be done in this case is to watch the barometer and wind until the general direction of its path is ascertained, then act according to circumstances. "When the storm is advancing in a direct line it is usually a simple matter to ascertain the bearing and approximate distance of the vortex.
Instances have occurred where vessels in the track of a typhoon, and standing directly toward it, have been led into the belief that it was a direct gale, because the wind did not shift, and were thus enticed into the vortex. This was the case with the U. S. S. "Idaho" off the coast of Japan.
Currents of the China Sea and adjacent waters.
The currents of the China sea usually take the direction of the prevailing monsoon, frequently modified by land, shoals, or other causes, some easily accounted for, others simply unaccountable. The uncertain currents of the Eastern seas add greatly to the difficulties and perplexities of the navigator.
The Kuro Siwo, or Japan Stream.
The great oceanic current called the Kuro Siwo, or Japan Stream has its origin in the N.E. trade drift of the Pacific ocean, between the parallels of 10° and 20° north latitude; taking a westerly course until it reaches the Philippean islands, where it is deflected to the northward, forming, near the northern end of Luzon, what may be considered the head of the Japan stream.
Sweeping along the group of islands to the northward of Luzon, a portion finds its way through the various channels, and, impinging upon the east coast of Formosa, is again deflected towards the coast of Japan, the northern verge reaching the latter coast about Cape Satano, and sweeping through Van Diemen strait with great force.
It attains considerable breadth in this locality, passing through the Linschoten, and Loo Choo islands, where its velocity is greatly decreased, and its limits not well defined.
It takes an E.N.E, direction from Van Diemen strait, attaining its maximum force on a line drawn from the latter point to the vicinity of Oö sima, thence to Rock Island. From the latter point to Cape Sagami, inside of Vries island, regular tides prevail. They are greatly affected but rarely overcome or entirely neutralized by the stream.
Passing Cape King, where it has an approximate breadth of two hundred miles, it separates, one branch taking a N.E. by E. direction, the other south easterly towards the Bonin islands.
Portsmouth Breakers.
The Portsmouth breakers were first reported by the U. S. Ship of that name, and were placed in latitude 34° 13' 00" N., longitude 138° 17' 00" E. As they have proven to be the result of currents it may not be out of place to mention them here.
Of all the reported dangers in the Eastern seas, none have caused as much anxiety and perplexity to the navigator as that above mentioned. The report of their existence in this locality, coming from the most reliable authority, and, their position being directly in the track of shipping, the spot was most religiously shunned at night and eagerly sought in daylight.
Ship after ship searched for it in vain, and reported that the breakers did not exist. Then would come reports from vessels at long intervals that they had seen them, and the search would be resumed, with the same result.
On the 5th of June, 1868, the U. S. S. "Onward," from Nagasaki for Yokohama, laid a course to pass over the position assigned them on the American chart of that day.
They were sighted from the masthead at 2.30 P. M., about ten miles distant. The weather was clear—a brisk breeze from N.W. and moderate swell.
We held our course until they were visible from deck, then hauled up a point to pass to windward. As we had a commanding breeze it was decided to take a line of soundings in passing. With this object in view, we ran down to within three cables of the western end, and were about heaving to for a cast when we discovered ourselves drifting rapidly towards the breakers, which extended about five miles in a W.N.W. and E.S.E. direction.
We made all sail and hauled up to IST.E. We now found ourselves in a heavy swell, the ship rolling violently and still losing ground. We then hauled by the wind heading N.N.E. and just held our own until finally drifting past them, when we resumed our course.
The height of the breakers was variously estimated at from fifteen to twenty feet.
Upon our arrival in Yokohama the circumstance was reported, and the U. S. S. "Monocacy" went out to search for them, but saw no breakers.
It is undoubtedly an overfall occurring at long intervals, and lasting for a short time only. I have passed over the position eighteen times since then, in all weathers, without seeing the least indication of danger.
Passages into the China Sea.
Vessels bound from America or Europe to Batavia, Singapore, Siam, and China, will enter the Java sea through Sunda strait. The same may be said of those bound to Japan, although at certain seasons, some of the Eastern passages might be preferred.
Banka, Gaspar, and Carimata straits lead into the China sea. Either may be selected, but the choice lies practically between the two former, the latter possessing no advantages to a vessel bound up the sea.
Banka strait is undoubtedly the safest, and in this respect has great advantages over Gaspar or Carimata.
Since the recent British and Dutch surveys of Banka strait it may be safely considered the most accurately mapped of any portion of the Eastern seas. It is of much greater length than Gaspar, and not so direct, but its approaches are easy and safe, and good anchorages can be found through its entire length, enabling a ship to take advantage of winds and tides.
Vessels entering the China sea through this strait escape the dangers encountered in the approaches to Gaspar, and during the N.E. monsoon, they will gain considerably to windward in smooth water.
Gaspar Strait.
Gaspar strait is extensively used by vessels bound to China direct, and under certain circumstances, has advantages over other routes. It is shorter, more direct, and with fine weather and favorable winds, time will undoubtedly be gained by using it.
On the other hand it cannot be approached at night, or in thick weather, without great risk. It was surveyed by officers of the U. S. Navy in 1854, but time did not admit of a thorough examination of the approaches.
There has been but little hydrographic work done in this locality since that time. What little knowledge we have gained, has been from ships whose wrecks marked, for a brief period, the numerous reefs and shoals that to-day bear their names.
This kind of exploration has serious disadvantages, not only from the loss of property, but from an uncertainty as to the exact location of the discovered dangers. The perilous position of a vessel suddenly stranded upon an unknown reef is not conducive to accuracy in observations for its location.
Vessels bound down the China sea, particularly during the latter part of the N.E. monsoon, usually pass through this strait, notwithstanding its dangerous approaches, and will continue to do so, for the simple reason that time is gained, which, to a homeward bound ship with a valuable cargo—the first of the new crop of teas for instance—is a matter of vital importance, and compensates in a certain measure for the extra risks.
Carimata Strait.
Carimata strait is the easternmost of the three principal channels leading from the Java to the China sea. Although broader than either Banka or' Gaspar, it is quite as difficult of navigation, owing to the fact that it has never been well surveyed.
The positions of many dangers have been determined by officers of the British and Dutch Navy, but there has been no thorough or connected survey, and many dangers are still unknown, or imperfectly placed on the chart.
Vessels frequently use this passage when bound from Singapore strait to China by the Eastern passage, and occasionally by homeward bounders, when, from the effects of winds and currents, they find it difficult to hold their course far enough to the westward to enter Gaspar strait.
Under the above conditions it might be advisable to take this route, depending upon a vigilant lookout and other precautions well known to the navigator, rather than upon the charts, which are well known to be unreliable.
Malacca Strait.
Malacca strait would be used by vessels bound from Ceylon, or the Bay of Bengal, up the China sea. It is well surveyed, and the channels generally of good width, with excellent anchorages.
Passages up the China Sea.
Having entered the China sea by any of the above passages, bound to Hong Kong, or ports to the northward, we have the following routes from which to select.
The Inner Route.
The inner route lies to the westward of the Anamba islands, to Pulo Condore, along the coast of Cambodia, Cochin China, and Hainan. It may be used to advantage during the latter part of the N.E. monsoon, in March, April, and May, by sailing vessels and steamers of small power. They will have smoother water than in the open sea, less current, and variable winds.
The Main Route.
The Main route lies to the westward of Anamba islands, to Pulo Sapata, the Macclesfield banks, and thence to Hong Kong.
This is the general route during the S.W. monsoon, and is by far the most simple navigation in the China sea. It is seldom used during the N.E. monsoon except by full powered steamers. The English and French mail steamers take it from Singapore to Hong Kong.
Sailing ships have used it also, but the wear and tear is so great that it is not advisable unless the anticipated results are sufficient to compensate for extra risk and expense.
None but the best Clipper ships would attempt it, and even they—after a brave battle with strong head winds, adverse currents, and turbulent seas—have frequently been obliged to bear away in a crippled condition, seeking milder weather in one of the Eastern passages.
The Game Cock's passage up the China Sea.
The American Clipper ship "Game Cock” left Batavia October 18, 1859 for Shanghai, with a valuable cargo, under guarantee to deliver it within 60 days. Large freights were offered, but no other ship in port would accept it with the conditions imposed. It was considered a hazardous enterprise and the general impression among ship-masters was that she would not make the passage in the time specified.
Variable winds and squally weather were experienced in crossing the Java sea. Gaspar Strait was passed on the 22d with moderate westerly winds, and fine weather.
The N.E. monsoon was encountered on entering the China sea; moderate at first and increasing rapidly as she went to the northward.
The route to the westward of the shoals was taken—the old route of the opium clippers—thence to Formosa, passing to the eastward of the island on the 28th of November, arriving in Shanghai, December 9, fifty-two days from Batavia.
We were usually under single or double reefs after passing Natuna and Anamba islands; from 8° to 22° N. latitude the ship was literally under water. Nearly everything movable on deck was adrift at one time or another during the trip, and it was with the greatest difficulty that we could keep the hatches securely battened.
The weather was usually overcast and misty, with frequent rains, heavy, turbulent seas, and strong southerly currents. Two or three days frequently passed without observations.
The experience of the "Game Cock" may be taken as a fair average from November to February, and as she was one of the most weatherly of all of the famous clippers of her day, it will be seen that the task she accomplished, after a desperate encounter with the elements, should not be attempted except by the ablest ships, perfectly appointed for their work.
The Palawan Passage.
A vessel taking the Palawan passage would sight Low island, pass between the Natunas, north of Lucouia shoals, through Palawan passage, up the coast of Luzon to Piedra point, thence to port, passing usually, to the southward of the Pratas.
This route is generally used during the N.E monsoon, from the latter part of October to March, by sailing ships and steamers of small or moderate power.
Vessels of the above class entering the China sea, through Banka strait, and finding the monsoon at its height, may escape much rough weather by taking Rhio strait, or even Varella, Durian, and Singapore straits, gaining considerably to windward in smooth water, with good anchorages available, enabling them to take advantage of tides and favorable winds.
Monsoon gales are frequent from December to February, particularly at the time of new and full moon, lasting two or three days with thick, rainy weather, turbulent sea, and a southerly current of fifty to seventy miles per day. Should a vessel encounter one of these gales upon her arrival at the eastern entrance of Singapore strait, it would be advisable to anchor until it moderates, when the wind will probably veer to the northward, or even N.W. for a short time, permitting her to cross over to the Borneo coast, without the delay she would certainly have met with had the passage been attempted during the gale.
The route between Great Natuna and Soubi island is preferable for sailing vessels, but if they find it difficult to work to windward, they may take either the Koti or Sirhassen passage.
The Api channel is difficult, owing to the strength and irregularity of the currents, but has been used to advantage by sailing vessels, and is strongly recommended by competent authority for steamers, as, near the Borneo coast, light to moderate winds, and comparatively smooth seas are frequently met with when it is blowing heavily farther off shore.
Smooth water may be expected from Luconia shoals to the northern entrance of Palawan passage.
From the Palawan it is usually considered advisable to make Lubang island; then follow the coast of Luzon at a distance of ten to twenty miles to Piedra point, or cape Bojeador, when a course may
be laid for Hong Kong, passing to leeward of the Pratas, unless the weather is such that the position of the ship can be accurately obtained.
Preparation should be made before leaving the coast of Luzon for carrying a press of sail, as strong winds, turbulent seas, and southerly currents will probably be encountered in crossing the sea. A fair sailor should be able to make Hong Kong, from the northern end of Luzon, without much difficulty.
If bound to one of the northern ports a course should be held to the northward of Luzon, passing through one of the channels between the latter island and Formosa; along the eastern coast of the latter, taking advantage of the Japan stream, thence to port.
Passage to the Westward of the Shoals.
The passage to the westward of the shoals follows the main route to about 10° N. latitude, then crosses over to the coast of Luzon, skirting the reefs, and reaching the latter coast between Manilla and Piedra point, where it intersects the Palawan route.
This was the old track of the Opium clippers, but in later years it was almost discarded for the Palawan passage.
Eastern passage from Singapore Strait.
The Eastern passage from Singapore strait leads through Carimata, up the Java sea, through Macassar strait, the sea of Celebes, and Basilan strait, into the Sulu sea; thence along the coast of Mindanao, Negros, Panay and Mindoro; entering the China sea through Mindoro strait, when the route joins that of the Palawan passage.
This route is used to advantage from October to December, by vessels not prepared to meet the heavy weather of the China sea.
N.W. winds may be expected in the Java sea; southerly and westerly in Macassar strait, and easterly in the Celebes and Sulu seas. Variable winds may be met with in the Sulu archipelago and Philippines, and gales from all quarters, with heavy thunder and lightning, are not uncommon.
If it is not desirable to enter the China sea through Mindora strait, a route may be taken into the Pacific Ocean, between Mindanao and Celebes, entering the China sea between Luzon and Formosa.
Eastern passage from Sunda Strait.
The eastern passage through Sunda strait, the Java sea, strait of Macassar, Celebes sea, and one of the passages between Mindanao and Celebes into the Pacific, is much used from October to December.
The U. S. S. "Onward" took this route, leaving Anjer September 24, 1867 for Nagasaki.
Light S.E. winds with frequent squalls from N.W. were experienced through the Java Sea. Surabaya was passed on the 3rd of October, and Pulo Laut on the 7th; thence to Cape Maudar, light westerly breezes prevailed, with variable winds in Macassar Strait. We entered the Pacific Ocean by the Siao passage on the 20th of October, carrying a moderate N.W. wind with fine weather.
Strong westerly currents were encountered in the Java sea, and a light southerly set in Macassar Strait.
A remarkable ripple was met near the northern entrance of the strait. The attention of the officer of the deck was attracted by a distant sound to windward, which for the moment he mistook for a heavy puff of wind; looking in the direction from which it came he observed a violent commotion on the surface of the water, the sound increasing as the ripple rapidly approached the ship, the noise was soon heard below, and the whole ship's company rushed on deck anticipating an order to shorten sail, supposing it to be a heavy squall approaching.
Considerable spray was thrown on deck as it passed the ship. The weather was fine at the time with a light breeze and smooth sea.
After entering the Pacific Ocean moderate N.W. winds were carried to lat. 12° 00' N., long. 136° 00' E. when the N.E. monsoon was encountered and carried to 28° 00' N. 125° 00' E. N.E and N.W. winds were then experienced until our arrival in Nagasaki, November 12th, 49 days from Anjer.
I have referred to this passage as a fair average for a good sailor over this route, from the latter part of September to the middle of November.
It was subsequently ascertained that we would have carried the S.W. monsoon to the northern end of Luzon, had we taken the route up the China sea, which would have shortened the trip by about fifteen days. By taking the Eastern passage we escaped a destructive typhoon which swept over the China sea on the 24th of October, and would, probably, have overtaken us between the Bashee channel and Miac Sima islands.
Passages to the eastward of Celebes.
The route to the eastward of Celebes is frequented from the middle of December to March, thus escaping the strong northerly winds and adverse currents met with in Macassar strait during those months.
A vessel bound from the Cape of Good Hope at this season would probably select one of the passages to the eastward of Java. If either Baly, Lombok, Alias, or Sapie straits are taken, it would be advisable to enter the Flores sea through Salayer strait, and the Molucca sea by Bouton strait, or along the southern and eastern side of Bouton island, thence to Pitts' passage, keeping well to the northward, as strong southerly currents may be expected.
Having cleared Pitts' passage we have a choice of two routes into the Pacific. Dampier strait is usually preferred from the middle of December to February, when fresh northerly winds prevail; the Gillolo strait during the latter part of February and March, when the winds are light and variable.
In the former case it would be advisable to pass to the eastward of the Pelew islands, when a course may be laid for the Bashee channel, making an allowance of fifteen or twenty miles per day for the monsoon drift.
Leaving Gillolo strait late in the season, it would be safe, with a fair sailing ship, to pass to the westward of the Pelews, and, from about lat. 12° 00' N., long. 131° 00' E., lay a course for Bashee channel making an allowance for the monsoon drift as before.
Ombay strait is much used from the middle of December to March, and is considered by many navigators to possess some advantages over other passages east of Java. The route is directly across the Flores sea to Pitts passage, where it intersects the route just described. Hong Kong to Singapore in the N. E. Monsoon.
Ships bound from Hong Kong to Singapore, and the straits leading into the Java sea, during the N.E. monsoon, usually take the inner route by the coast of Cochin China until February, and the main route in March and April.
During the strength of the monsoon there is a heavy, turbulent sea, which, by the main route, will be brought nearly abeam, causing a vessel to labor heavily. Deeply ladened ships have been known to receive damages of so serious a nature, from the above cause, that they have foundered before they were able to reach smooth water.
After the strength of the monsoon is over, the main route is preferable; and time has been gained in April by keeping from 100 to 150 miles to the eastward of the main route.
From Hong Kong to Singapore during the S.W. Monsoon.
The passage from Hong Kong to Singapore during the S.W. monsoon is apt to be tedious, but is much easier than a trip to the northward during the N.E. monsoon.
It was formerly considered impracticable to beat down the sea against it, but since the era of Clipper ships the main route has been much used by vessels of that class. A route more to the eastward is much used and may generally be considered preferable; passing Macclesfield bank in about 116° 00' E. longitude, thence to about lat. 9° 00' N. and Ion. 112° 00' E. when a southerly course may be taken for the west end of Borneo, following the general coast line to Carimata strait, thence across the Java sea to the strait of Sunda.
The Palawan passage has been used, but seems never to have become a favorite route.
The Eastern passage by the coast of Luzon, Mindoro strait, the Sulu and Celebes seas, strait of Macassar, and the Java sea, is a favorite route for vessels wishing to escape the wear and tear of beating down the open sea.
From Hong Kong to Shanghai during the N.E. Monsoon.
A sailing vessel leaving Hong Kong bound to Shanghai or one of the northern ports during the N.E. monsoon, will generally gain time by standing over, on the port tack, to the vicinity of Luzon; then stand across to the China coast, when she will probably weather Breaker point. The south end of Formosa can then be gained without serious difficulty.
It is the custom with many experienced navigators to beat up along the China coast to Breaker point, and then stand across for Formosa. Both routes have their advocates, and, under certain conditions, each, doubtless, has its advantages.
The latter route might be preferable with a weatherly, quick working ship, and a thorough knowledge of the coast, the probable direction of the winds at different hours of the day, set of tides and currents, and available anchorages.
The route to the eastward of Formosa is almost invariably taken, the advantages being a weatherly current of from 20 to 30 miles per day, instead of an adverse set of 30 to 50 miles in the strait.
The sailing directions usually recommend the route to the eastward in order to escape the heavy seas of Formosa strait. My experience has been that heavier seas are met with on the south and east coasts of Formosa than in the strait, or anywhere else in this region; and steamers avoid the route on that account. The weatherly current above mentioned is its only recommendation.
After passing the north end of Formosa it is advisable to keep well off the coast until up with the Chusan islands, when a course may be laid for port.
Small coasting steamers follow the coast, taking advantage of all passages affording smooth water and anchorages. Large, full powered vessels take a direct route to Breaker point, and then make the lights in succession along the coast.
The most tedious part of the trip is usually from Breaker point to Chapel island. The monsoon seems to attain its greatest force here, with a heavy, confused sea and strong current.
The passage inside the Lamocks, and Brothers, is sometimes taken to avoid the heavy head sea outside.
From Shanghai to Hong Kong during the N.E. Monsoon.
The passage from Shanghai to Hong Kong during the N.E. monsoon is through Formosa strait, and along the China coast; sighting the lights in succession. Every opportunity should be availed of to get the ship's position, as cloudy, misty weather is the rule, and dense fogs set in frequently when least expected.
The currents are very strong at times, and great caution is necessary in thick weather to prevent running past the port.
Shanghai to Hong Kong in the S.W. Monsoon.
The route for steamers and sailing vessels is practically the same from Shanghai to Hong Kong in both monsoons.
During the S.W. monsoon sailing vessels usually favor the China coast, making short tacks and taking every opportunity to verify the ship's position, as hazy, foggy weather prevails, particularly in the early part of the season.
The passage to the southward against this monsoon is not as difficult as to the northward against the other. The winds are more variable, and laud and sea breezes are frequently met with close in shore.
A moderate sailing ship should make the passage without serious difficulty or delay.
Vessels homeward bound from Shanghai, wishing to escape the wear and tear of beating down the whole length of the China sea, frequently take the eastern passage.
From Hong Kong to Yokohama in the N.E. Monsoon.
A sailing vessel bound from Hong Kong to Yokohama in the N.E. monsoon would take the Bashee Channel and a direct course from there to the Gulf of Yedo. Should she fall to the leeward of Bashee channel it would be advisable to take one of those to the southward, not attempting to work to windward until well clear of the islands, where better weather and more sea room will be found. Great caution will be necessary however as this region is but partially known, and imperfectly surveyed.
The route for steamers is the same as that to Shanghai until up with Turnaboat Island: a direct course may then be taken to Van Diemen strait, Oö sima, Rock Island, and the Gulf of Yedo.
Another route, and one I much prefer, is from Turnabout to the Linschoten islands, passing between any of those to the southward of Naka sima; thence direct to Oö sima. Rock Island, and to port.
The latter route has several advantages. The course being more to the eastward, all sail can frequently be carried with the prevailing winds, when fore and aft canvas would hardly stand if steering for Van Diemen strait. The latter place is proverbial for its constant thick, rainy, squally weather, and has been not inaptly termed the Cape Hatteras of Japan.
Clear, pleasant weather is the rule in the Linschoten islands, and the exception in the strait.
The passage through the islands can be taken with safety either by night or day; even in cloudy weather the atmosphere is usually clear enough to distinguish the land at a safe distance. There are no outlying dangers near the route usually taken, and the distinctive features of the islands are so marked that they are not easily mistaken.
I usually steered direct for Suwa sima, an active volcano, which could be distinguished by its smoke and a dense cloud which generally hung over it, before the land was visible. Passing from five to ten miles the northward of Tokara, and from twenty-five to thirty-five miles from Yoko sima, which I never failed to see.
There is an offset from the stream near Van Diemen strait, which, passing through Colnett and Vincennes straits, meets the current through the islands, causing strong eddies and heavy tide rips, and, in my opinion, accounts for the various breakers and rocks supposed to lie off the south end of Tanega sima. I have frequently passed the position assigned them on the charts without seeing anything more formidable than the tide rips above mentioned.
The current of the Japan stream is divided by the islands to the southward of Cape Satano; one branch flowing through Van Diemen strait, the other through the Linschoten islands, the streams joining again about fifty or seventy-five miles to the eastward of Tanega sima, I have frequently experienced a light counter current in this locality.
There is an average loss of fifteen to twenty miles in current by taking this route, but I consider the advantages of fine weather, a leading wind across the sea, and the simple navigation through the islands, ample compensation for disadvantages arising from the temporary loss of a favorable current, or other causes.
It is usually considered advisable to make Oö sima in passing, to verify the ship's position, as the current of the Japan stream is very uncertain in direction and force.
From the latter point to Rock island, the maximum strength of the stream will be felt. My experience has been from one-half to three knots per hour, depending upon prevailing winds, and other causes not satisfactorily explained.
With the ordinary coast winds a vessel will usually be set a little off shore between the above points. I have never been set inshore except with strong southerly winds.
A steamer will usually make her course good between Rock island and Vries island, but from the latter point to Cape Sagami it will, at times, be seriously affected by the tides, which, at full and change, are very strong, and set on and off shore, across a vessel's track.
On one occasion I found the flood setting into Odawara bay three knots per hour.
From Hong Kong to Yokohama in the S.W. Monsoon.
The general route for sailing vessels from Hong Kong to Yokohama in the S.W. monsoon is through the Bashee channel, and direct to the Gulf of Yedo.
The route to the eastward of Formosa, and the Linschoten islands, is frequently taken, and even that by the strait of Formosa, and Van Diemen's strait. The latter route is not recommended however, and is seldom taken.
Steamers take about the same route in both monsoons, except that small vessels do not find it necessary to hug the China coast as closely.
From Yokohama to Hong Kong in the N.E. Monsoon.
Sailing vessels bound from Yokohama to Hong Kong in the N.E. monsoon usually take the direct route to the Bashee channel, thence to port. They would probably find variable winds to about 28° N—where the monsoon should be met with and carried to port.
Steamers, after passing Rock island, usually follow the coast line to Oö sima, avoiding the Japan stream, getting smoother water, and occasionally a light counter current setting to the westward.
From Oö sima a course would be laid for Cape Muroto; thence to Cape Isa, Towi saki, and Van Diemen strait.
In crossing Kii channel a vessel may be set in or out as the current happens to be running.
From Muroto to Cape Isa a steamer will usually make her course good, but from the latter point to Towi saki the set is invariably inshore, except during a N.W. gale.
This indraught has been felt so strong at times that vessels have found themselves inshore to the northward of Cape Cochrane, and, mistaking it for Towi saki, have found themselves in dangerous proximity to Nelly rock.
From Towi saki to Cape Satano it is customary to steer from point to point, avoiding the strength of the stream, and keeping hold of the land as much as possible, for it may be obscured at any moment. I have usually found the vessel set off shore a little between the above points.
Having passed the strait it will be advisable to steer for Kuro Sima, passing a mile to the southward of it, when a direct course may be laid for Tung Ying island, on the China coast, thence to port by the strait of Formosa, before described. The Japan stream is usually avoided by taking the above route.
If a land fall is to be made at night it would be advisable, when approaching the coast, to make Turnabout light. It can be seen twenty-four miles in clear weather, and I have never failed to see it at a distance of eight or ten miles.
In making the land in this vicinity I have usually found the ship to the northward of her course, and never to the southward, even with strong northerly winds.
The length of this paper admonishes me of the necessity of bringing it to a close. I wish to observe in conclusion, that it does not aspire to the dignity of a sailing direction, an object unattainable in a paper of this kind.
The subject covers so much ground that I have found it impracticable to enter into detail in any of its various branches, simply glancing at the physical geography of the region embraced in the title, as affecting the navigation of its waters.
I have attempted to draw attention briefly to most if not all the routes experience has taught us to adopt under the ever varying conditions of wind and weather.
The periodical and prevailing winds, and other atmospheric phenomena, occupy a large portion of this paper, as having the most direct and important bearing on the subject under consideration.
The various currents materially affecting navigation have been briefly noticed.
The meteorology of the region embraced in the title, furnishes material for a most interesting and useful paper; and it is to be hoped that some of our officers whose duties have peculiarly fitted them for the discussion of this subject, will favor us with the result of their investigations.
Those who are familiar with the standard authorities on the China sea, are aware of the fact that much of the data dates far back into the eighteenth century, supplemented from time to time, in new editions, with more recent information; the several volumes of the present day being a compendium of personal experiences.
If my experience related in this paper has added anything, however insignificant, to the general knowledge of those distant and imperfectly known waters, or if my efforts shall induce others, more competent, to take the subject up, in any of its branches, the object of this paper will have been accomplished.
DISCUSSION
Lieut. Collins. I would like to ask what the action of the barometer was previous to and during the cyclone alluded to as having occurred to the northward of Madagascar.
Lieut. Tanner. I have no data at hand, and do not recollect the exact height, but I remember its general action perfectly well.
When it fell calm on the morning previous to the storm the barometer was at its normal height in good weather, something over 30.00 inches. It began to rise rapidly during the morning and, at 4 P. M. was unusually high, showing a decidedly abnormal atmospheric condition. It then commenced
falling, slowly at first, then rapidly, until 8 P.M. The Captain was then convinced of the near approach of a cyclone and commenced his preparations to meet it.
The greatest depression was at about noon, when the storm was at its height, it was between 27.50 and 28.00 inches. It began to rise between 1 and 2 P. M., the wind moderating during the afternoon.
As the subject of this gale has been brought up it may not be out of place for me to mention some of its features.
The close reefed top-sails and storm stay-sail were blown away about 6 A. M. The hands had been called to take them in, but the wind increased so rapidly there was so chance to save them.
From 9 A. M. to meridian the lee scuppers were under water most of the time, the sea a mass of seething foam, with a dense white mist enveloping the ship to the height of the tops. A tropical sun was shining brightly over head, and the evaporation was so rapid that the wood work on deck, the ships' sides, masts, and rigging, were soon covered with a coating of salt, our faces, hands, and clothing were covered with it, the air was full of it, we could see it, taste it! The foam and mist was so dense that blue water was not seen for several hours.
We had marled the sails to the yards with studding-sail gear, but they were eaten away between the turns, and those that were not entirely blown away required extensive repairs.
After the topsails blew away we lashed some new tarpaulins in the weather mizzen rigging, but they blew away during the forenoon. There was but little sea until the wind began to moderate during the afternoon, then we had a fearful one, knocking the ship about so badly that seams and butts opened in the most alarming manner.
The ship was cotton loaded and, as far as her cargo was concerned, met the gale under the most favorable auspices.
Lieut.-Comdr. Nelson. Although not within the limits of the paper, I would like to ask Lieut. Tanner if the mail steamers between San Francisco and Yokohama take the Great Circle route, and if not, for what reason.
Lieut. Tanner. The Great Circle is never taken by the side-wheel steamers. The propellers take it at times during the months of June, July, and August. An approximate Great Circle is usually preferred however.
Westerly winds prevail to such an extent over the northern part of the Pacific ocean for nine months of the year that a constant swell may be expected from that direction. Winds and sea are generally heavier as the higher latitudes are approached, decreasing in the region of the trades.
In crossing on rhumb the line it is nothing unusual to encounter a heavy N.W. swell for a week or ten days at a time with little or no wind, not enough to steady the ship with sail. A constant heavy rolling must be submitted to or the ship hauled up head to sea.
This swell is as much, if not more, dreaded than the gales on this route. To avoid it as much as possible the side-wheel steamers' adopted the route from San Francisco to thirty degrees N. one hundred and forty degrees W. crossing on the thirtieth parallel to one hundred and fifty degrees E. thence to port, making the distance five thousand two hundred and fifty miles.
Returning they usually take the rhumb line, the distance being four thousand, seven hundred and seventy-seven miles.
In making the trip to the westward in the "City of Peking" I usually took the rhumb line, but if heavy westerly or N. W. winds were encountered, would bear away to the southward and westward under steam and sail, for the side-wheel route, or until milder weather was found.
I usually took the great Circle in returning, to about forty degrees N. during the winter months; forty-two to forty-four degrees N. during the autumn and spring, and from forty-four degrees to forty-six degrees N. during the summer, making the distance four thousand six hundred to four thousand six hundred and thirty miles, the great Circle being four thousand five hundred and twenty-three miles.
The latter route would take a vessel to forty-eight degrees, twenty-five minutes N. and in the wintertime it would be so cold that the sails and running rigging would be frozen at times, making it impossible to gain the full benefit of fair winds.
Crossing on the parallel of forty degrees N. better weather is met than nearer the islands, and it is never cold enough to freeze much—not enough to interfere with the handling of sails.
Constant fogs will be encountered on the great circle route during the summer, and as they are not as frequent between the parallels of forty-four degrees and forty-six degrees N. that route is usually preferred. Much misty weather will be found all over the North Pacific in the summer, but on the latter route the sun will usually be seen during the day, and stars at night, a heavy mist hanging over the water.
When the Occidental and Oriental steam ship line commenced running they adopted the great circle route but the wear and tear was so great, that after a year's experience they abandoned it except during the summer months.
Rear-Admiral Jenkins made some general remarks on the relative value of side-wheel steamers and propellers for Ocean service, and the route between San Francisco and Yokohama in particular.
In referring to the typhoons of the China sea he said that when he took command of the Asiatic station he gave orders that no ship should go to sea with a filling barometer. The result was that during the two years he was in command he never had a vessel caught in a typhoon at sea. He thought with proper caution a man of sense need seldom be caught in a typhoon at sea in time of peace. In war time it would be different, it might be necessary to take extra risks then.